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Literary Translation and TQA ()

Many of the books written about translation over time relate mainly to literary translation and in particular the difficulty of "translate well," "preservation quality", and also to be "faithful." These talks are based on the assumption of universality and a historical claim on the one hand, rarely offer any historical perspective on how the actual translation have been produced and used throughout the centuries, on the other hand, there is a clear historical basis and what is not actually clear what has happened before. Of course, academic work there, but it is quite heterogeneous, making it difficult to provide a reliable picture of either the history or current thinking on translation literature.

The very use and combination of literary and translation is a symptom of the casual way in which the concepts of literature and translation so far been taken for granted. Since the majority nor the concept is simple or well-defined cultures, literary translation is to define the first stumbling block in front of scholars. In this sense, a historical explanation of how the study has been conceptualized with the help of things such as dictionaries, encyclopedias and other basic instruments of cultural knowledge, is therefore very necessary. The same applies, of course, practices translation and its exact relationships with more or less explicit theories at different points in history.

The use of literature term and its equivalents in several languages to refer to specific patterns of creativity in style, genre, etc seems to be a more modern, dating only the eighteenth century (Escarpit 1962; Culler 1989). Scholarship has clearly established the extent that literature is necessarily linked to a particular language, let Moreover, the extent to which particular literary traditions can be linked to a specific territory, nation or state. A tenuous relationship between literature and other entities as language, territory and nation suggest that the signs do not necessarily translated literature is expressed in the interaction between different literary traditions (Lambert, 1984). The concept of translation itself is also far from universal, and where there is the dividing line between it and the concept related to the rewriting is not necessarily clear or uniformly established either historically or at a given moment in time, even within the same linguistic tradition (Van Gorp, 1978). Ubiquity the type of event that is casual with respect to translation studies and literary translation makes is for the students to define the conditions under which this type of event takes place, and to investigate the conditions under which does not occur. However, this is no easy task, given the ambiguous situation literature in translation, especially taking into account the problem of visibility to the invisibility of the act of translation. In the first case the translation is presented explicitly while in the latter translation is disguised as an original, such as fairy tales and children's literature in turn explains why most readers remain unaware of the foreign origins of some literary texts.

 

Review historical evaluation of translation quality (TQM)

 

Quality is undoubtedly an important issue in modern industry. Consequently, industrial customers up with the quality requirements for translation of documentation and localized products. At the same time we must recognize that a growing number of customers are, to some extent, fully capable of assessing the quality of the translated product. They are not capable of producing the texts themselves, but they know how to identify quality. Total Quality Management (TQM) as the mother of all subsystems of quality assessment defines the concept of quality as "fully valid according customer needs." Moreover, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines quality as "The all traits and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. "Given these issues, in recent years has been a significant increase in interest in the development of criteria for good solve the problems of assessing the quality of translation. This interest has resulted in many studies on the nature of translation, techniques and procedures used in the translation process. There has also been attempts to build models to assess the quality of translation that can be used as viable tools for translators and translation reviewers. To name just afew, Farahzad (1992) believes that the field of Translation Quality Assessment (TQM) is problematic, especially when the texts are long, and there are also theories and applications on the assessment of student translations. Some experts are concerned about the development of models that meet the needs of professionals seeking and close the gap between theory and practice. Other criteria are an attempt to develop "objective" evaluation of translation by adding conventional frameworks of educational measurement, such as reliability, validity and objectivity, on the whole structures. She argues that there are two main features should be monitored in points for each translation unit (suggesting that phrase and clause would be the translation units) and are:

 

1. Accuracy: the translation must transmit the information in the ST that is, precisely, the translation should be close to the ST rules.

2. Suitability: phrases sound fluid and natural, are correct in terms of structure.

She declares that unnatural Translations to transmit the source text is the sense of perceiving half of the score, while inaccurate translations are not score, no matter how appropriate and natural target sound texts. Moreover, at points of error recognition of a score is given to detect the error, and another to correct it. As long texts, believes Farahzad be noted that can be done in several ways:

 

A: you can tap in a holistic manner: From the point evaluates a wide variety of skills, the examiner may be convenient to approach the text as a translation unit and adopt this system, especially with a large number of students. The examiner may, for example, come up with the following schedule:

1. Accuracy - 20 percent

2. Adequacy - 20 percent

3. Naturalness - 20 percent

4. Cohesion - 20 percent

5. Style of speech / choice of words - 20 hundred

 

B: can be subjected to the objectivity of scoring: In this system the aim of text must be read twice, first to verify the accuracy and relevance, then, for cohesion and style. While much time, this system is more reliable.

Farahzad suggests that the phrase and clause would be the translation units. Thus, each verb in the source language text marks a score. The main clause receives a score and each sub-clause of another score. So the accuracy and appropriateness are checked in each phrase and clause. Cohesion and style can not be test and scored in the sentence and clause. The elements of cohesion (eg, transition, proper use of pronouns, links, etc.) are scattered throughout the text as are the elements that make up the style of speech (choice of words, grammatical structures, etc.) If, for example, the source text is quite neutral, you can assign fewer points to it in other cases in the preservation of style is important. However, the method seems a method Farahzad holistic and can cause some problems in the evaluation of translations. Therefore, it seems that the method of Waddington Farahzad could complete the evaluation method, which is expressed as follows:

Waddington (2001) indicate that almost all of contributions in Translation Quality Assessment (TQM) have been descriptive or theoretical and have focused mainly on the following topics:

(I) Establish criteria for a translation "good" (Darbelnet 1977, Newmark 1991);

(Ii) the nature of translation errors:

- Defining the nature of translation errors as opposed to language errors (House 1981, Nord 1993, Kussmaul 1995, Gouadec 1989);

- Develop a list of possible translation errors (Gouadec 1981);

- Establishment of the relationship, as opposed to absolute, translation errors (Williams 89, Gouadec 89, Pym 92, Kussmaul 95);

- The need to assess the quality not only in linguistics, but also the pragmatic level (Sager 1989, Williams 1989, Hewson 1995, Kussmaul 1995, Nord 1996, Hatim & Mason 1997);

(Iii) Based on the evaluation of the linguistic text analysis (House 1981, Larose 1989);

(Iv) the establishment of different levels in a hierarchical textual and linking the importance of errors at this level (Dancette1989, Larose, 1989).

For example, in order to ascertain the type of translation tests and classes correction methods currently used in Colleges of Translation, Waddington sent a questionnaire to 48 European and Canadian universities. A total of 52 teachers responded from 20 of these universities and their responses reflected the following situation:

(I) All teachers said that students need to translate a text, although more half also include other tests.

(Ii) with regard to methods of evaluating student translations are concerned, 36.5% of teachers use a method based on error analysis, 38.5% use a holistic approach, and 23% combined error analysis with an appreciation global.

According to these results, which considers the validity of the results obtained by applying these different methods to correct the translation of part of an authentic text done by students under exam conditions.

Al-Qinai (2000) indicates that Translation is a complex process in which the hermeneutic intuition plays a crucial role in the interpretation of the intentions of the writer ST. Moreover, languages vary in their choice of lexical connotations, sentence structure and rhetorical strategies, the only tangible tools for evaluation. It is prudent, therefore Therefore, to discuss the adequacy of a translation rather than the degree of equivalence. Furthermore, the quality is relative and absolute accuracy to allow the end user (customer ie) impose their own subjective preferences of style in TT. In connection with these challenges, standardization of quality is thus a fuzzy gray area. However, Al-Qinai on the concerns of its study in textual / functional (or pragmatic) compatibility (ie, the linguistic quality of the conversion) instead of to logistics management and presentation (quality of service). Notes that the ultimate goal of users are interested in product quality and not the means requested to serve his creation. According to him, the assessment of a translated text is aimed at measuring the efficiency of the text in relation to the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic function of ST within the cultural context and the expressive possibilities of the source language and target language. It also states that no two languages are identical, either in meaning or form, the best we can hope for is an approximation given the following variables:

a) Nature of message ST.

b) Purpose and intent of ST producer.

c) Type of audience.

Another student of translation, Sainz (1992) tells of a student-centered approach to the correction of translations. She believes that teachers should make clear that there is no right or wrong answers to questions and that student responses will be used only as feedback for discussion later.

The process suggests Sainz for the correctness of translations

It comprises five stages as follows:

1. Development is a stage that aims to understand and anticipate the needs of students in order to respond more efficiently.

2. The application is a stage in which students receive the letter of correction "In the following:

Errors

Correction potential

Source

Error Type

Under "Errors" students write the word, phrase or sentence that was seen as wrong in its translation. In "The correction possible" trying to produce an "error free" versions. The source of the response to the correction of students in column "Source" as: "Myself," "Pairs", "Dictionary", "Maestro." The column "Error Type", filled by students can become a good exercise to help students recognize what kind of error they are doing and therefore eliminate them.

3. Monitoring is a stage during which teachers can control the process to make adjustments as the course is developed on the basis of information retrieved from the "Letter of Correction.

4. Integration is a period during which teachers can fill your own letter of "Types of Errors" for a particular translation piece.

5. Self-evaluation is a period during which students can check their own progress in the course, at the same time, become critical about their learning.

Moreover, in the bottom of the "students are asked Charter Correction "to the circle of the figure, ranging from 3 to -3, who believe that best suits your idea about your performance in that particular translation step and to make other comments.

'Model S Bell TQA

This model is developed from systemic linguistics Halliday Functional, which had its roots in the intellectual and linguistic tradition grew in Europe after the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. According to this model translate and evaluate a text, the understanding of three layers of meaning, ideational, interpersonal and textual must be conquered first and then continue to the next step, ie the translation process. According to Bell, the three layers of meaning are:

(A ideational) revealing a cognitive sense. This meaning is embodied in a transitivity system to create a proposal for starting the user experience "about the external world of the senses and the inner world of the mind" (Bell, 1991:121). This transitivity system, there are many types of processes such as material, mental, verbal, verbal, mental behavior, attributes and relationship identification etc.

(B) Interpersonal expressing the functional significance of expression that takes place in a mood to create sentences that contain proposals or proposals and describe the relationships between a speaker and another. This system realizes the mood of social reality and explores the clauses in the exchange of information goods and services.

(C) Textual describing a heartfelt speech that takes place in a production system subject discourse in a communicative event. The speeches are organized in such a cohesive and coherent manner.

The macrofunction of language (Halliday also known as "metafunction) described in illustrative diagram on the next page. This diagram clearly shows the "red" and "system" of languages. The job description Halliday of language contributes greatly to the understanding of a text.

In this system and analyzing in detail, it is clear that the three layers of meaning ie ideational, interpersonal and textual construction of the support the macro (or Target), the function of language. First, the layer of ideational meaning governs and determines the field of discourse by which the text object is known. This case has to do with the genre of the text referring to the category or the domain field which includes language. Macrofunction ideational layer language is itself further divided into sub-functions logic and experience for which expresses the process, the role and circumstances speech with the title of transitivity. The process for all points of the challenges and stumbling blocks before the translator and the steps he s or she should make attempts to eliminate and transverse, respectively, so as to reach a final product guaranteed in quality and reader acceptance. The importance of this step due to the fact that the process of translation and their dilemmas are usually denied to the reader when you think of translation as a product, as the reader finds that only a final product as a result of a decision-making effort, ignoring the translation process. The sub-branches subsequent falls in this category, namely. roles and circumstances, refer to the function or position of a piece of text in different languages, and the general atmosphere surrounding it, respectively.

The second layer of meaning, ie, the interpersonal, express the functional significance of speech, and governs the content of speech by which the degree of emotional, social attitudes and supportive relations between the various addressers and addresses (in short, that communicates with whom) are explained. In addition, the interpersonal meaning expresses the functional significance of expression which takes place in a sub-system, known as mood, creating sentences that contain the proposals or proposals in the form of indicative or imperative. The system also identifies the state of mind and realize the social and communicative realities based on the rules accepted by both speakers and listeners everywhere.

The third macrofunction subdivision language, appears in the diagram, ie, the text regulates the mode of discourse by which the type of language used, whether written or oral, is determined. The notion of the subject, known as the main idea or theme in mutual conversation between the speaker and audience, is the most important substantive here, for which the information provided within the language system can be a tool for the text layer of meaning in a thematic context. Consequently, operating all three sub-divisions of language macrofunctions together a network of production systems, where understanding of the layers of meaning fully with the translation process can be followed in a product environment.

Bell gives an example; Alfred bill hit with a hammer. The three layers of meaning contained in the sentence can be reconstructed as follows

Table DE Case Illustration of three layers significance of Bell

 

 

Alfred

coup

Bill

With a hammer

ideational

actor

Material

process

objective

circumstances:

way: half

interpersonal

S

F / P

C

attached

Humor

Residue

textual

 

Topic

Present

unmarked

 

Rema

The process that occurs in the sentence as seen from the ideational level is that a positive response material processing was carried out by 'an actor Alfred called against a person named Bill by means of a hammer. Viewed from an interpersonal level, the phrase is indicative and declarative in order to provide information. In a text level, the thematic structure of the sentence is topical unchecked. After reconstructing the meaning of the sentence the transfer process takes place. The translation must have the same ideational level, while the interpersonal and textual may be different. In summary, we can say that TQA Bell model is useful for text analysis in the ideational, interpersonal and textual levels. Still retains a good translation ideational meaning of the source text, while the other meanings, interpersonal and textual may be different.

The role of the textual function in TQA

The essence of translation is in keeping with the "meaning" in both languages. There are three aspects to this effect: semantics, textual and pragmatic so that translation can be defined as the replacement of a text in the SL semantics and pragmatics of text equivalent in the TL. In this definition of the translation of the term "equivalent" is the key word and the concept of equivalence is taken to be the fundamental criterion of quality translation. Thus, a text is an adequate translation, semantic and pragmatic equivalent. As a first condition for this equivalence is postulated that the text translation has a function equivalent to that of the source text.

The function can be divided into two main groups:

1) cognitive-referential (also known as ideational or informational), based on content and reveal facts about the objects and realities.

2) No cognitive (also known as emotional and expressive, the interaction between man-o-oriented) that is focused and takes the perspective of the author ST.

The result of two major functional categories are useful to provide convenient labels for the two components of the function of a text, which are always co-presented. The notions of "ideational" and "interpersonal" functions proposed by Halliday (1973) are also used interchangeably for these two branches. Bearing into account the above classifications, the role of a text can be defined as the application or use of the text is in the context of a particular situation. With the purpose of characterize the precise role and establishing functional equivalence between ST and TT, the ST has to be analyzed for the first time in detail, so that the equivalence requested to TT can be clearly established. The dimensions of the situation and linguistic materials (syntactic, lexical, and textual) are seen as the means by which determining the function of the text or realized. We used the dimensions of the situation to the opening of the ST, a particular text profile is obtained for the characteristic ST the role of text and a standard against which the quality of the text is to be measured. Therefore, the extent to which textual and TT profile match function or do not match is the degree ST the TT is more or less adequate quality.

To analyze the debate on the role of text as a necessary factor in more clearly TQA can be conclude from the foregoing that TQA data, like language itself, has two basic functions, an ideational and interpersonal. The first is concerned, is primarily regarded as the primary linguistic-textual analysis, description, explanation and comparison, and also based on empirical research and professional knowledge of linguistic structures and rules of language use. The second refers to value judgments, social, interpersonal and ethical development socioeconomic, political and socio-psychological significance, individual ideological position or belief. Without the former, the latter is useless, in other words, judging is easy to understand not. In other words, the TQA have to explain the reasons for our view that based on sound theory and argued all intersubjectively verifiable set of procedures. A detailed analysis of the "hows" and "whys" of a translated text (ie linguistic forms and functions) compared to the original form of which is derived, is the basis for any valid descriptive and argued assessment if, how and to what extent a translation can be chosen to be more or less adequate quality. Clearly, this means recognizing the inevitability of subjective any TQA by a human evaluator. However, this recognition does not invalidate the objective of the evaluation, but simply reinforces their need.

TQA in three different schools of thought

The most important schools of thought involving the concepts to various TQA are:

Views Mentalist

In this school, subjective and intuitive assessments of a translation has been undertaken long ago by writers, philosophers, and many others, that consists of global judgments such as "translation does justice to the original" or "the tone of the original is lost in translation" etc. In a new look, such intuitive assessments by scholars spread neo-hermeneutic translation that consider translation as a creative individual depends exclusively on the subjective interpretation and transfer decisions, intuitions artistic, literary and interpretive skills and knowledge. In summary, this school is subjective and intuitive nature, where declarations of vague and hermeneutics are quality translation standards.

Response approaches

This school of thought is illustrated precisely in their division two of the following sub way:

Behavioral view

As opposed to the previous approach TQA subjective-intuitive, the behaviorist view aims at a more "scientific" evaluation of translations translator mental actions dismissed as belonging to some, in principle, unknowable "Black box." This tradition has been influenced by American structuralism and behaviorism is the most famous associated with the pioneering work of Nida (1964) in which the reactions of readers of a translation is taken as the main criterion for assessing the quality of a translation, postulating global performance criteria as for example, the intelligibility and informativeness and stating that a "good" translation is one that leads to the "equivalence of response"  a concept clearly related to its principle of "dynamic equivalence translation, ie how recipients respond translation a translation must be "equivalent" to the way that recipients of the original text to respond to the original. Nida operationalzed this equivalence as comprising equality "informativeness" and "intelligibility". Assuming it is true that a "good" translation must obtain a response equivalent the answer to your original, should immediately ask whether it is possible to measure an "equivalent response," not to speak of "informativeness" or "intelligibility". If these phenomena can not be measured, it is no use running as criteria for the TQA. And indeed, even the most imaginative tests designed to establish the answers verifiable and observable presumably evokes a translation  using techniques such as reading aloud, about different qualification procedures  have finally succeeded in providing the desired results because they were unable to grasp a phenomenon as complex as the "quality of a translation." In addition, the source text is largely ignored in all these methods, which means that nothing can be said about the relationship between original and translation, or whether the translation is in fact a translation and no other secondary text derived through a different text operation.

 

Functionalist, "skopos Approach related 

Supporters of this approach (Reiss and Vermeer1988) statement that is "skopos or purpose of a translation that is very important to judge the quality of a translation. The purpose of the rules as culture attend or circumvented by a translation is the key criterion in evaluating a translation. He is the translator, or more often the short translation is given by person (s) making the translation to decide on the role of translation has to fulfill in their new environment. The notion of "function" key in this theory, however, never made explicit, and less still in operation in any way satisfactory. It seems to be something very similar in the sense of real life text. How exactly does one go about determining is the relative equivalence of a translation and adaptation, let alone precisely how one is going on determining the linguistic realization of the skopos "translation, it is not clear. Most importantly, however, follows naturally from the fundamental role assigned to the "purpose" of a translation as the original is reduced to a simple "offering information" with the word "supply" making it clear that this "information" can be freely accepted or rejected by the translator sees fit. But as any translation is at once joined his ST and the assumptions and conditions governing its reception in the new environment, skopos theory can not be said that an adequate theory when dealing with the assessment of a translation in its fundamental bidirectionality.

Text and discourse based approaches

The most important subgroups fell in this category are listed as follows:

Literature oriented  Use: Descriptive Translation Studies

This approach is oriented at right angles to the text in translation: The translation is evaluated mainly in terms of their forms and functions within the system of the receiving culture and literature (Toury, 1995). The original is of secondary importance, the main objective of the retrospective   original translation is "real translations" and textual phenomena that have become known in the target culture as translations. The idea in this approach to TQA is primarily an attempt to "neutral" to describe the characteristics text that are perceived on the basis of native species (receiver) knowledge of cultural members "of comparable texts in the same genre. However, if one seeks to judge a particular text which obviously is not an "independent," "new" product of a culture only, such an approach seems retrospective peculiarly inappropriate to make valid statements about how and why a translation qua translation it is. While the solid empirical-descriptive and the emphasis on micro-level contextualization of the situation of reception and the macro-level of the receiving culture in general as well as the inclusion of longitudinal somewhat "(Temporary diachronic) and one (synchronous) systems perspective (taking into account the poly-systemic relations in which the translation enters with other texts in the cultural receiving system), is certainly commendable, the approach fails to establish criteria for judging the merits and weaknesses of a particular text. In other words, this gap involves such debatable questions as: How are we to judge whether a text is a translation and not another one? And what are the criteria for judge the merits and weaknesses of a given text translation "?

Since modernist  and deconstructionists Thought

Scholars belonging to this approach (eg Venuti, 1995) attempt to critically examine practice translation processes and a philosophical position and psycho-socio-political in an attempt to unmask the unequal power relations, which may appear as a certain bias translation. In a plea for translation (and especially the translators and their "creators") "visible" and to reveal the ideological and institutional manipulations, the proponents of this approach aim to do politically appropriate ("correct") statements about the relationship between the characteristics original text and translation of texts. They focus on the configuration of the hidden forces in both the selection process which results in the first place and procedures giving rise to the forms in the original texts are bent and twisted in the interests of powerful individuals and groups in choosing the texts for translation and adoption of certain re-contextualization strategies. This is certainly a worthwhile undertaking, especially when it comes to explaining the translators can exert influence through translation national literature and get a canon.

Linguistically oriented approaches 

Pioneering the linguistic work in TQA program includes suggestions by Catford (1965), the first Reiss (1971), Wilss (1974), Koller (1979) students of translation of the Leipzig school. In more recent times, several linguistically-oriented works in translation, eg, Baker (1992), Doherty (1993), Hatim and Mason (1997), Hickey (1998), and Mudersbach Gerzymisch-Arbogast (1998) have made valuable contributions to the evaluation of a translation by the very fact that all these authors  although not directly related to TQA  expanded the scope of translation studies to include language problems, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, stylistics and discourse analysis.

linguistic approaches to take the relationship between source and translation of texts seriously, but differ in their ability to deliver the detailed procedures for the analysis and evaluation. Most promising approaches that take explicit account of the interconnectedness of context and text, and the inextricable link between language and the real world is both final in the sense-making and in translation. Such a view of translation as re-contextualization is largely a functional-pragmatic model developed TQA for the first time 25 years ago and recently reviewed by Juliane House (1997 and 1981), which is also the model to be studied in the current thesis.

Linguistic Description versus Social Evaluation TQA

In TQA is important to realize the maximum difference between the linguistic analysis and social judgments. In other words, one must distinguish between description and explanation of linguistic features of the original text and compare them with the relevant characteristics of the translation language text on the one hand, and judging "how good a translation is another side. Judgments of quality of a translation depends on a variety of factors that come into any language, and social assessment statements. Critics in the case of TQA is the fact that evaluative judgments emanating from the analytical is, and also the comparative process of TQA, is the linguistic analysis give grounds to argue that a value judgment.

As mentioned above, the choice of a manifesto or a non-covert translation depends on the text alone, or in the translator's subjective interpretation of the text, but also on the reasons for the translation, readers implicitly, in a variety of editorial and marketing policies, ie the factors that clearly have nothing to do with the translation as a linguistic process as these are social factors that relate human agents constraints as well as socio-cultural, political and ideological   the reality of practice translation are often be more influential than linguistic considerations or professional competence of the translator himself. However, it is noteworthy that despite all these "external" influences, the translation is at its core a linguistic-textual phenomena, and may be legitimately described analyzed and evaluated as such. It is for this reason that the main concern of TQA must be linguistic-textual analysis and comparison, and any consideration  social factors if it is divorced from the textual analysis  must be of secondary education in a scientific discipline, such as translation studies. Of course, linguistic description and explanation should not be confused with evaluation statements made solely on the basis of social reasons political, ethical or individual. If we take the translation as an object of scientific research, the translation should be seen primarily as that is, that is, a phenomenon in its own right: a linguistic-textual operation. And the nature of translation as linguistic-textual operation be confused with issues such as what is the translation for, you should, could or should be for.

Translation quality is a concept problematic, if you take the individual and externally motivated only value judgments. Obviously, passing any "doomsday" in quality a translation that meets the requirements of scientific objectivity is very difficult in practice. As an evaluator, one is always forced to move flexibly a macro-analytic approach to a micro-analytical considerations of ideology, role, gender, registration with the communicative value of different linguistic elements. By taking this multi-perspective view, a responsible critic of translation leads to a position where he or she can give a reconstruction probabilistic choices of the translator, and with the support of the translator's voice, being able to throw some light on their decisions in a more objective possible.

References

Al-Qiani, J. (2000). Assessing the Quality of translation. The strategies, parameters and procedures. Meta, XLV, 3, 2000.

Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words. On a lake on the translation. London, Routledge.

Basting, (2009). Four steps to achieve quality in translation and localization M..

Bell, RT (1991). Translation and translation theory and practice. London and New York: Longman.

Bensoussan, M. and Rosenhouse, J. (1990). Assessment of 'Translations Stusents by discourse analysis. Babel, pp. 65-84.

Biber, D. (1988). Variation Across Speech and Writing. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Catford, J. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Chapelle, CA (1998). Some notes on systemic functional linguistics.

Crystal, D. and Davy, D. (1969). Research English Style. London, Longman.

Culler, J. (1988). In puns: The Foundation of Letters. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Daryna, Z. (2009). Seven Secrets of good translations.

Ebrahimi, B. (2007). Evaluation translation learning environment for training: theories and applications. Available

Farahzad, F. (1992). Achievements Examinations of translation classes. Amsterdam / Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

Gerasimov, A. (2009). Review Translation Software Quality Assurance.

 

About the Author

MA in TRANSLATION, Great Translation Theoretician,Mazandaran Province, Ghaemshahr City,IRAN

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